B2Upper-intermediateClauses and linking words

Linking words by function

Reference lists of linking words for adding, contrast, reason, result, purpose and time, with what follows each.

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Linking words join ideas: two parts of a sentence, or two sentences. Choosing the right one depends on two things: the job it does (adding, contrast, reason ...) and the grammar that follows it. Some take a full clause (because it rained), some a noun or an -ing form (because of the rain), and some start a new sentence and are followed by a comma (However, ...). This page lists the common ones by job. The rule pages on each group explain them, with the common mistakes.

In the tables, clause means a subject and a verb (it was late), and noun means a noun, a pronoun or an -ing form (the rain, it, feeling ill). A word marked new sentence usually starts a sentence, or comes after a semicolon, and has a comma after it.

Adding an idea

Linker	What follows	Example
and	clause or noun	It's cheap and it's fast.
also, too, as well	(in the clause)	It's also fast. It's fast too.
as well as	noun	As well as being cheap, it's fast.
in addition to	noun	In addition to the fee, you pay for food.
in addition, what's more	new sentence	It's cheap. What's more, it's fast.
moreover, furthermore	new sentence	(formal writing) Moreover, it is fast.

Also goes before the main verb and after be. Too and as well go at the end. What's more is informal; moreover and furthermore are formal.

Contrast

Linker	What follows	Example
but	clause	It's small but it's comfortable.
although, even though	clause	Although it's small, it's comfortable.
despite, in spite of	noun	Despite its size, it's comfortable.
despite the fact that	clause	Despite the fact that it's small, ...
whereas, while	clause	I'm tall, whereas my brother is short.
however	new sentence	It's small. However, it's comfortable.
on the other hand	new sentence	It's small. On the other hand, it's cheap.
nevertheless	new sentence	(formal) It was late. Nevertheless, we went.

Incorrect: Despite of the rain, we went out.
Correct: Despite the rain, we went out.
Incorrect: Although it was late, but we went out.
Correct: Although it was late, we went out.
One contrast linker is enough.

Reason

Linker	What follows	Example
because, as, since	clause	As it was late, we took a taxi.
because of	noun	We stayed in because of the rain.
due to, owing to	noun	(more formal) The flight was delayed due to fog.

As and since often start the sentence, when the reason is already known. Because is more usual in the middle. Owing to is a little more formal than due to.

Incorrect: We stayed in because the rain.
Correct: We stayed in because of the rain. / We stayed in because it was raining.

Result

Linker	What follows	Example
so	clause	It was late, so we took a taxi.
so ... that, such ... that	clause	It was so late that we took a taxi.
as a result, therefore	new sentence	The road was closed. As a result, we were late.
consequently	new sentence	(formal) Consequently, the plan failed.

Therefore can also go after the subject: The road was closed. We therefore took the other route.

Purpose

Linker	What follows	Example
to, in order to, so as to	verb	I left early to catch the train.
in order not to, so as not to	verb	I left early so as not to miss it.
so that	clause	I left early so that I could catch it.
for	noun	I went out for some bread.

Time

Linker	What follows	Example
when, as soon as, until	clause	Call me as soon as you arrive.
while	clause	I read while she was asleep.
during	noun	I read during the flight.
before, after	clause or noun	After the film, we had dinner.
after that, afterwards	new sentence	We had dinner. Afterwards, we went home.
then	(no comma)	We had dinner. Then we went home.
meanwhile	new sentence	I cooked. Meanwhile, Tom set the table.
eventually, finally, in the end	(in the clause)	We eventually found the hotel.

After when, as soon as, until, before and after, use a present tense for the future: I'll call you when I get there.

Incorrect: I read a book while the flight.
Correct: I read a book during the flight.
During + a noun, while + a clause.

Examples and lists

Linker	What follows	Example
for example, for instance	new sentence or noun	Many fruits, for example apples, ...
such as, like	noun	sports such as tennis and golf
firstly, secondly, finally	new sentence	Firstly, it's cheap. Secondly, ...
in short, overall, to sum up	new sentence	Overall, it was a good year.

Like is more informal than such as. E.g. (for example) is used in notes and lists, not usually in speech.

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Where this rule sits

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